H 1
Ag Biotech
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AgBiotech 1 &2 : Ag Biotech
October 13 and 15, 2009

I. Timeline! Seeds of Change:

A nice resource: Transgenic Crops

1980: First transgenic plants. The Birth of Plant Biotech. Mary-Dell Chilton, Wash U. (and 3 other groups almost simultaneously) showed that the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens can insert its Ti plasmid DNA into tobacco, Nicotiana plumbaginifolia. Shortly after that, work by Chilton (and other groups) showed that the bacterium could be used as a gene vector, creating tobacco plants that were kanamycin resistant. Cool.

1990: First fertile transgenic maize (Bt corn), DeKalb Genetics.
[PDF] Fertile Transgenic Maize - a great paper if you get a chance!!!!!

 1994-1997: The tragic story of the FlavrSavr, the first GM food licensed by the FDA for human consumption.

1996: Genetically modified (GM) crops: Bt-corn and RR soybean:

Mycogen Corp / Ciba Seeds is the first company to market hybrid Bt-corn (ECB).

Monsanto introduces Round-up Ready Soybeans and BollGard (Bt) cotton.

1999: GM crops cover 25% of US Cropland - over 98 million acres

~37-45% of all corn is genetically engineered [Image]

~47-55% of all soybeans are genetically engineered

~48-50% of all cotton is genetically engineered

Over 50 GM crops have been approved by the USDA - potatoes, tomatoes, melons, beets, strawberries, rice, wheat, apples, cucumbers, etc.

2003: GM crops cover 40% of US Cropland ~ 110 million acres, and 167 million acres worldwide (Argentina is next biggest grower of GM crops). Today (Summer 2007...)

~40% of all corn is genetically engineered

~80% of all soybeans are genetically engineered

~75% of all cotton is genetically engineered

 

II. Questions for this week and next:

What are GM crops and how do you make them?

Why do we need GM crops? Three reasons.

What Biotech companies are at the forefront of Ag-Biotech Crop production? [Image]

What Regulatory Processes exist for GM Crops?

What are the issues surrounding GM Foods - real or imagined?

Environmental Issues

Health Issues

Consumer Issues

III. What are GM crops? Really, all crops and plant foods we eat are technically GM - 'genetically modified' - from their original undomesticated state, by controlled breeding over hundreds of years.

 

A 'true' GM plant, or transgenic plant, however, contains a gene or genes from another organism stably and heritably inserted into their genome via genetic engineering rather than via pollination. Transgenic plants are are what many people mean when they talk about GM foods or GMOs. We will use the terms (GM / GMO / transgenic) to refer to those plants with a foreign transgene inserted.

 

How do you make a transgenic plant? A great review of how to...

(1) Identify and Locate genes for plant traits: insect resistance, herbicide resistance, yield potential, stress tolerance, new chemical products etc"

(2) Design genes for insertion (transgenes)

Marker: Kan, Bar Promoter: CaMV 35S, Cab Transgene, Temination


(3) Transform plant tissue; Three main methods:
---> Agro (basic procedure, Chilton et al., Fraley et al)
---> Gene Gun: John Sanford, Cornell (basic procedure, Hasegawa et al., Beachy et al., 2004 review article)
---> Whiskers (patent to Dow Agrosciences)


(4) Select transformants and regenerate them into plants

 

 

"Goals of Agricultural Biotechnology: In general terms, these goals fall into two major categories:

Improving crop performance in the field (Input Traits) - These matter to...
o Examples: Virus, Insect, Herbicide, Fungal resistance, Environmental stress tolerance, YIELD!!!

Developing new products with enhanced value (Output Traits) - These matter to...
o Examples: Nutritional/Health benefits, Shelf life, novel products, edible vaccines or other medicines..

Input vs. Output Traits (examples).

Three specifics:

1. To protect against insect damage: The European corn borer(ECB) causes well over $1 B of damage yearly to corn in the US. Other insects like corn rootworm, cotton bollworm, tobacco budworm, etc. cause combined damages of over $7 B yearly in the US.

  • Bacillus thuringiensis is a gm+ soil bacterium that produces an insecticidal crystal protein from the cry genes (over 100 genes in different strains)
  • Bt crystal proteins are toxic to Lepidopteran insects such as the ECB and other related pests. When ingested, the Bt crystal toxin is activated by enzymes in the insect's gut. The activated toxin attaches to specific gut receptors, destroys cells in the gut wall, puncturing the gut and poisoning the insect. [Image]
  • Bt-toxin (example: Dipel) is an 'environmentally friendly' insecticide used for ~40 years in both conventional and organic farming. Dipel is simply freeze-dried Bt, containing lots of crystal protein.
  • Prior to 1990, Bt was pretty ineffective against ECB - because it couldn't reach the insects inside the stalk.
  • Solution: "In Plant Protection"- Isolate the cry genes from bacteria, and introduce into corn plants (early '90s) = transgenic Bt-corn, followed by Bt-cotton, etc. These GM crops make the cry proteins in each and every cell of the plant. Reduces or eliminates the traditional spraying of Bt in the field and outperforms spraying with Bt.

2. To lower herbicide use: Weeds (ie plants growing where they are not desired) reduce the yield of crops in three ways:

  • Weeds can reduce yield - the 'bottom line' for farmers - up to 50% by (1) competing with the crop for water, light and nutrients, (2) interfering with crop harvest, and (3) contaminating harvested seeds or products with weed seeds and toxins.
  • Weed Control...RoundUp (glyphosate), one of the world's most popular and 'friendly' herbicides, binds to and inhibits EPSP synthase, involved in the production of aromatic amino acids. All plants and bacteria use EPSP synthase to make aromatic amino acids, so all plants (& bacteria) are sensitive to RoundUp.
  • 1985: Agrobacterium mutant found that differed from the wild type by 1 amino acid and did not have affinity for glyphosate (Luca Comai et al.). Bacteria with this mutant EPSP synthase continue to make amino acids even in the presence of glyphosate.
  • 1994: Well, then, let's put it into plants! United States Patent 5,633,435: Glyphosate tolerant EPSP synthase = RoundUp resistance: to Monsanto
  • 1996: plants genetically engineered with tolerance to herbicides (ie Roundup). "In plant" herbicide tolerance = Round Up Ready
  • September 2000: Patent on RoundUp expires! But new formulations already on the market.
  • September 2002: Do farmers love RR plants...or not? The Corn and Soybean Digest says yes!

3. To increase food production and quality: The world population is growing at ~200,000 people per day = well over 1 million people per week. Additional people need additional food (etc..). If more food, or more nutritious food, can be produced on the same land, can feed more people on the same land.

Agrobacterium-mediated transformation used to introduce the entire B-carotene biosynthetic pathway into rice endosperm in a single transformation effort with three vectors:

(1) Glutelin (Gt1) promoter + daffodil phytoene synthase (psy) + 5' transit peptide of psy

(2) 35S promoter + bacterial phytoene desaturase (crtI) + pea Rubisco small subunit transit peptide

(3) Glutelin (Gt1) promoter + lycopene B-cyclase (lcy) from daffodil + 5' transit peptide of lcy

And vector 3 also contained the 35S promoter + aphIV selectable marker (hygromycin resistance).

And the results: beautiful!!!

Grains of Hope: Time Magazine (good) vs. (bad) Grains of Delusion...Golden Rice seen from the ground up"

  • Ingo Potrykis and Peter Beyer licenced the technology to AstraZenica
  • Golden Rice and Vitamin A. Deficiency = Warm Up article
  • Good news! Latest 'golden rice' gets go-ahead for trials 02 April 2005 ".. the latest variety, Syngenta Golden Rice 2, contains 37 micrograms of provitamin A per gram, 23 times as much as the first variety. A typical daily serving of around 200 grams should provide the recommended minimum dose of vitamin A - providing the provitamin is not destroyed by cooking and can be absorbed by the body...". Currently in testing in India and the Philippines.

A great list of Transgenic Crops on the Market
Notable Discontinued Transgenic Crops
Possibilities for Future Transgenic Crops

 

'The rapid adoption of biotechnology (since 1996) can be attributed to THREE MAIN factors. (quotes from Hillyer article)

1.

2.


3.

 

So...lets see the goods!

 

IV. Ag-Biotech Companies and GM Crops - Who's Who [A. Monsanto]

So far, most traits AgBiotech companies have put into GM crops are "Input Traits" that appeal specifically to the farmer - the grower - who is on the front lines waging the war against insects, weeds, and other pests, and trying to make a good living based on yield (bushels per acre).

Monsanto"Imagine"
Company Profile: Founded in 1902 and headquartered in St Louis MO, (MTC).

AgBiotech Products on the Market - Wow, look at this great list of "Genuity", YieldGard, & RR seeds!

Bt-crops (Insect protected):

1. YieldGard Insect-protected (Bt) corn

YieldGard® Corn Borer: (1996)

2. Bollgard Insect-protected (Bt) cotton seed

Bollgard Bt Cotton: (January 1996)

 

Genuity / Bollgard II - (Summer 2003):



3. A Tragic story: NatureGard / NewLeaf Insect-Protected (Bt) and Virus-protected potatoes (discontinued)

  • Approved by the USDA/EPA in 1995-1998: Genetically engineered Colorado Potato Beetle-protected potatoes; also came with virus-protection options: New Leaf Plus (Bt + resistance to Potato Leaf Roll Virus -PLRV) and New Leaf Y (Bt + resistance to the Potato Virus Y -PVY).
  • Tragic death, March 2001: "Monsanto discontinues the "New Leaf" potato line. Just before the potatoes were introduced, a new insecticide was approved that effectively controlled the Colorado Potato Beetle. Most farmers chose the new insecticide. Furthermore, several large potato processors-- including McDonald's, Burger King, Frito-Lay, and Procter & Gamble-- agreed to use only non-GE potato varieties."

 

RoundUp Ready: Genetically engineered in-plant tolerance to Roundup Herbicide

1.Cotton, Soybeans, Canola, Corn...etc

  • Each crop plant has been transformed with the mutant EPSP synthase gene from Agro that allows plants to synthesize amino acids in the presence of Roundup, while all the weeds nearby die a horrible death....
  • RR crops are immune to the broad spectrum (non-selective) herbicides Roundup.
  • Allows growers to apply Roundup herbicide directly "over the top" usually ~twice - at the beginning of the season and the middle of the season.

Canola: "...creates a clean slate for increased yield potential."

Soybean: "..high grower satisfaction, consistent yield advantage, averaging $23.00/acre profit opportunity."

A rather large selection of options: Can be combined with Bt and other

"Simply the Most Profitable Way to Grow Soybeans" - well, what more needs to be said?

 

Corn: "...can increase corn yields as much as 12 bushels an acre. That turns into $36.50 an acre of gross return."

  • Disclaimer: While the U.S. regulatory agencies have given full approval to Roundup Ready® corn for commerce in the U.S. for marketing and consumption as food, food ingredients and feed for livestock, certain regulatory approvals are pending in certain export markets.
  • New for 2009: RR Corn:"Now with EU Approval"!

IV. B. Ag-Biotech Companies and GM Crops - Who's Who [Others] (see Table for examples of AgBiotech companies owned by AgChemical Companies...) This is a semi-complete list; no need to remember who makes what (will NOT be on the test) - just look to see the scope of the products:

 

DeKalb/Asgro: (Monsanto's seed company) YieldGard Insect resistance (Bt), RR crops

Dupont and its seed company Pioneer HiBred:

DowAgrosciences and it's seed company Mycogen Seeds : NatureGard Insect resistance (Bt), SuperCede Nutritionally Enhanced Corn (1999) [for cows, not us...], Herculex (cool signage...) lots more!!!

Syngenta (a giant conglomerate of 3 old companies, plus a bunch of small companies!): Ciba (1884), Geigy (1758) and Sandoz (1876). Sandoz + Ciba became Novartis (1996), Novartis is merged with AstraZeneca in 2000 to form Syngenta, "the first global group focusing exclusively on agribusiness"   Northrup King" Maximizer Insect resistance (Bt)

Aventis/Hoechst (oops, now Sanofi-Aventis) and its seed company AgrEvo LibertyLink - Liberty (Glufosinate = Basta!) tolerance

 

V. What about the bottom line: "Global data on Bt crops provided by ISAAA chairman Dr Clive James indicate:

increases in crop yields from 5-10% percent in China, 10 percent or more in the US, and 25 percent in South Africa*

decreased production costs,

a reduction of at least 50 % in insecticide applications,

(*Note: Great increases in yield even though increased yield was not the main goal!)

 

VI. Output Traits: Some truly COOL products:

 

The Next Wave of AgBio GM crops will focus on "Output Traits" that are meaningful to the PROCESSORS: Archer Daniels Midland / (Wiki) , etc., and FOOD INGREDIENT COMPANIES (Kraft, General Mills, etc)


1. VISTIVE /RR Low-Linolenic Soybeans:

  • Trans-Fat Solution for the Food Industry and Premium Opportunity for Soybean Growers More than 10 years in the works!!! Soybeans with less linolenic acid reduce or virtually eliminate the need for partial hydrogenation thus trans fats in processed soybean oil can be reduced or eliminated in fried foods, baked goods, snack products and other processed foods. Woo Hoo!!!
  • >3% linolenic acid, compared to 8% for traditional soybeans
  • more stable soybean oil
  • less need for hydrogenation.
  • And how timely: beginning Jan. 1, 2006, all food and dietary supplements regulated by the FDA in the US are now required to list trans-fat content!
  • Available for the 2006 growing season
  • Producers will grow the soybeans under a premium contract with participating soybean processors, which will crush the grain, refine the oil and market that oil to food companies.


2. Processor-Preferred: "grain with compositional value to processors; unlocking value for growers in new markets. "

High Extractable Starch (HES) and

High Fermentable Corn (HFC)

I-85 program

 

Upcoming output traits: Foods meaningful to the CONSUMERS

Can you think of a few traits here?

MUST GO HERE!!! Sustaining agbiotechnology through lean times [PDF]Nature Biotechnology 21, 996 - 1002 (2003) (link) Great article but BIG figures!

"Functional food: Definition?"

Objectives: Part 1

  1. Compare and contrast the mechanisms of transformation for monocot and dicot plants. What is Agrobacterium? Kanamycin?
  2. Know the 1999 and most current (2006/07) figures for GM crops in the US (corn, cotton, soybean)
  3. Explain how insect resistance is engineered into plants.
  4. What is Dipel? Bt? What is the cry gene / protein? What does this protein do to Lepidopteran insects?
  5. Explain how herbicide resistance is engineered into plants.
  6. What is EPSP synthase? What is RoundUp?
  7. How do GM crops with herbicide resistance benefit the farmer? (how does it benefit Monsanto?!)
  8. What is Golden Rice, and what is its promise for the future? What are some of the concerns? What transgenes do these GM rice strains carry?

Objectives: Part 2

  1. List three factors that led to the rapid adoption of GM crops by US farmers (Article)
  2. Distinguish between "Input" and "Output" traits in GM crops
  3. Identify and discuss the two commercial types of "Input traits" on the market today (Monsanto) - Yield/Boll Gard and RR.
  4. What is the difference between YieldGard® Corn Borer, Yield Gard Rootworm, and Yield Gard PLUS?
  5. Make sure you know what you are eating when you are eating GM food!
  6. Explain why ag-biotech crops make sense in terms of yield, insecticide applications, and production costs
  7. VISTIVE /RR Low-Linolenic Soybeans and the Processor Preferred hybrids.
  8. Explain some upcoming output traits / "functional foods"

 

8GMfoods.html ; 8agbioclassqs.html; 8agbio2k9figs.html